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14 CFR

CFI Instrument Practical Test Standards, FAA-S-8081-9B, June 2001

II. Technical Subject Areas

C. Regulations and Publications Related to IFR Operations

    1. 14 CFR parts 61, 91, 95 and 97
    a. Part 91: Certification of Pilots, Flight Instructors, and Ground Instructors
    4) Selected elements of 14 CFR Part 91 of importance to instrument flight
    • 91.103 Preflight action
    • 91.109 Flight instruction; Simulated instrument flight and certain flight tests.
    • 91.123 Compliance with ATC clearances and instructions.
    • 91.167 Fuel requirements for flight in IFR conditions.
    • 91.169 IFR flight plan: Information required.
    • 91.173 ATC clearance and flight plan required.
    • 91.175 Takeoff and landing under IFR.
    • 91.177 Minimum altitudes for IFR operations.
    • 91.179 IFR cruising altitude or flight level.
    • 91.181 Course to be flown.
    • 91.183 IFR radio communications.
    • 91.185 IFR operations: Two-way radio communications failure.
    • 91.187 Operation under IFR in controlled airspace: Malfunction reports.
    • 91.205 Powered civil aircraft with standard category U.S. airworthiness certificates: Instrument and equipment requirements.
    • 91.103 Preflight action
      Each pilot in command shall, before beginning a flight, become familiar with all available information concerning that flight. This information must include—
        (a) For a flight under IFR or a flight not in the vicinity of an airport, weather reports and forecasts, fuel requirements, alternatives available if the planned flight cannot be completed, and any known traffic delays of which the pilot in command has been advised by ATC;
        (b) For any flight, runway lengths at airports of intended use, and the following takeoff and landing distance information:
          (1) For civil aircraft for which an approved Airplane or Rotorcraft Flight Manual containing takeoff and landing distance data is required, the takeoff and landing distance data contained therein; and
          (2) For civil aircraft other than those specified in paragraph (b)(1) of this section, other reliable information appropriate to the aircraft, relating to aircraft performance under expected values of airport elevation and runway slope, aircraft gross weight, and wind and temperature.
    • 91.109 Flight instruction; Simulated instrument flight and certain flight tests.
      (b) No person may operate a civil aircraft in simulated instrument flight unless—
        (1) The other control seat is occupied by a safety pilot who possesses at least a private pilot certificate with category and class ratings appropriate to the aircraft being flown.
        (2) The safety pilot has adequate vision forward and to each side of the aircraft, or a competent observer in the aircraft adequately supplements the vision of the safety pilot; and
        (3) Except in the case of lighter-than-air aircraft, that aircraft is equipped with fully functioning dual controls. However, simulated instrument flight may be conducted in a single-engine airplane, equipped with a single, functioning, throwover control wheel, in place of fixed, dual controls of the elevator and ailerons, when—
          (i) The safety pilot has determined that the flight can be conducted safely; and
          (ii) The person manipulating the controls has at least a private pilot certificate with appropriate category and class ratings.
    • 91.123 Compliance with ATC clearances and instructions.
      (a) When an ATC clearance has been obtained, no pilot in command may deviate from that clearance unless an amended clearance is obtained, an emergency exists, or the deviation is in response to a traffic alert and collision avoidance system resolution advisory. However, except in Class A airspace, a pilot may cancel an IFR flight plan if the operation is being conducted in VFR weather conditions. When a pilot is uncertain of an ATC clearance, that pilot shall immediately request clarification from ATC.
      (b) Except in an emergency, no person may operate an aircraft contrary to an ATC instruction in an area in which air traffic control is exercised.
      (c) Each pilot in command who, in an emergency, or in response to a traffic alert and collision avoidance system resolution advisory, deviates from an ATC clearance or instruction shall notify ATC of that deviation as soon as possible.
      (d) Each pilot in command who (though not deviating from a rule of this subpart) is given priority by ATC in an emergency, shall submit a detailed report of that emergency within 48 hours to the manager of that ATC facility, if requested by ATC.
      (e) Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, no person operating an aircraft may operate that aircraft according to any clearance or instruction that has been issued to the pilot of another aircraft for radar air traffic control purposes.
    • 91.167 Fuel requirements for flight in IFR conditions.
      (a) No person may operate a civil aircraft in IFR conditions unless it carries enough fuel (considering weather reports and forecasts and weather conditions) to—
        (1) Complete the flight to the first airport of intended landing;
        (2) Except as provided in paragraph (b) of this section, fly from that airport to the alternate airport; and
        (3) Fly after that for 45 minutes at normal cruising speed.
      (b) Paragraph (a)(2) of this section does not apply if:
        (1) Part 97 of this chapter prescribes a standard instrument approach procedure to, or a special instrument approach procedure has been issued by the Administrator to the operator for, the first airport of intended landing; and
        (2) Appropriate weather reports or weather forecasts, or a combination of them, indicate the following:
          (i) For aircraft other than helicopters. For at least 1 hour before and for 1 hour after the estimated time of arrival, the ceiling will be at least 2,000 feet above the airport elevation and the visibility will be at least 3 statute miles.
    • 91.169 IFR flight plan: Information required.
      (a) Information required. Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, each person filing an IFR flight plan must include in it the following information:
        (1) Information required under §91.153 (a) of this part;
        (2) Except as provided in paragraph (b) of this section, an alternate airport.
      (b) Paragraph (a)(2) of this section does not apply if :
        (1) Part 97 of this chapter prescribes a standard instrument approach procedure to, or a special instrument approach procedure has been issued by the Administrator to the operator for, the first airport of intended landing; and (2) Appropriate weather reports or weather forecasts, or a combination of them, indicate the following:
          (i) For aircraft other than helicopters. For at least 1 hour before and for 1 hour after the estimated time of arrival, the ceiling will be at least 2,000 feet above the airport elevation and the visibility will be at least 3 statute miles.
      (c) IFR alternate airport weather minima. Unless otherwise authorized by the Administrator, no person may include an alternate airport in an IFR flight plan unless appropriate weather reports or weather forecasts, or a combination of them, indicate that, at the estimated time of arrival at the alternate airport, the ceiling and visibility at that airport will be at or above the following weather minima:
        (1) If an instrument approach procedure has been published in part 97 of this chapter, or a special instrument approach procedure has been issued by the Administrator to the operator, for that airport, the following minima:
          (i) For aircraft other than helicopters: The alternate airport minima specified in that procedure, or if none are specified the following standard approach minima:
            (A) For a precision approach procedure. Ceiling 600 feet and visibility 2 statute miles.
            (B) For a nonprecision approach procedure. Ceiling 800 feet and visibility 2 statute miles.
        (2) If no instrument approach procedure has been published in part 97 of this chapter and no special instrument approach procedure has been issued by the Administrator to the operator, for the alternate airport, the ceiling and visibility minima are those allowing descent from the MEA, approach, and landing under basic VFR.
      (d) Cancellation. When a flight plan has been activated, the pilot in command, upon canceling or completing the flight under the flight plan, shall notify an FAA Flight Service Station or ATC facility.
    • 91.173 ATC clearance and flight plan required.
      No person may operate an aircraft in controlled airspace under IFR unless that person has—
        (a) Filed an IFR flight plan; and
        (b) Received an appropriate ATC clearance.
    • 91.175 Takeoff and landing under IFR.
      (a) Instrument approaches to civil airports.
      Unless otherwise authorized by the Administrator, when an instrument letdown to a civil airport is necessary, each person operating an aircraft, except a military aircraft of the United States, shall use a standard instrument approach procedure prescribed for the airport in part 97 of this chapter.
      (b) Authorized DH or MDA. For the purpose of this section, when the approach procedure being used provides for and requires the use of a DH or MDA, the authorized DH or MDA is the highest of the following:
        (1) The DH or MDA prescribed by the approach procedure.
        (2) The DH or MDA prescribed for the pilot in command.
        (3) The DH or MDA for which the aircraft is equipped.
      (c) Operation below DH or MDA. Where a DH or MDA is applicable, no pilot may operate an aircraft, except a military aircraft of the United States, at any airport below the authorized MDA or continue an approach below the authorized DH unless—
        (1) The aircraft is continuously in a position from which a descent to a landing on the intended runway can be made at a normal rate of descent using normal maneuvers, and for operations conducted under part 121 or part 135 unless that descent rate will allow touchdown to occur within the touchdown zone of the runway of intended landing;
        (2) The flight visibility is not less than the visibility prescribed in the standard instrument approach being used; and
        (3) Except for a Category II or Category III approach where any necessary visual reference requirements are specified by the Administrator, at least one of the following visual references for the intended runway is distinctly visible and identifiable to the pilot:
          (i) The approach light system, except that the pilot may not descend below 100 feet above the touchdown zone elevation using the approach lights as a reference unless the red terminating bars or the red side row bars are also distinctly visible and identifiable.
          (ii) The threshold.
          (iii) The threshold markings.
          (iv) The threshold lights.
          (v) The runway end identifier lights.
          (vi) The visual approach slope indicator.
          (vii) The touchdown zone or touchdown zone markings.
          (viii) The touchdown zone lights.
          (ix) The runway or runway markings.
          (x) The runway lights.
      (d) Landing. No pilot operating an aircraft, except a military aircraft of the United States, may land that aircraft when the flight visibility is less than the visibility prescribed in the standard instrument approach procedure being used.
      (e) Missed approach procedures. Each pilot operating an aircraft, except a military aircraft of the United States, shall immediately execute an appropriate missed approach procedure when either of the following conditions exist:
        (1) Whenever the requirements of paragraph (c) of this section are not met at either of the following times:
          (i) When the aircraft is being operated below MDA; or
          (ii) Upon arrival at the missed approach point, including a DH where a DH is specified and its use is required, and at any time after that until touchdown.
        (2) Whenever an identifiable part of the airport is not distinctly visible to the pilot during a circling maneuver at or above MDA, unless the inability to see an identifiable part of the airport results only from a normal bank of the aircraft during the circling approach.
      (f) Civil airport takeoff minimums. Unless otherwise authorized by the Administrator, no pilot operating an aircraft under parts 121, 125, 129, or 135 of this chapter may take off from a civil airport under IFR unless weather conditions are at or above the weather minimum for IFR takeoff prescribed for that airport under part 97 of this chapter. If takeoff minimums are not prescribed under part 97 of this chapter for a particular airport, the following minimums apply to takeoffs under IFR for aircraft operating under those parts:
        (1) For aircraft, other than helicopters, having two engines or less—1 statute mile visibility.
        (2) For aircraft having more than two engines— 1/2 statute mile visibility.
        (3) For helicopters— 1/2 statute mile visibility.
      (g) Military airports. Unless otherwise prescribed by the Administrator, each person operating a civil aircraft under IFR into or out of a military airport shall comply with the instrument approach procedures and the takeoff and landing minimum prescribed by the military authority having jurisdiction of that airport.
      (h) Comparable values of RVR and ground visibility.
        (1) Except for Category II or Category III minimums, if RVR minimums for takeoff or landing are prescribed in an instrument approach procedure, but RVR is not reported for the runway of intended operation, the RVR minimum shall be converted to ground visibility in accordance with the table in paragraph (h)(2) of this section and shall be the visibility minimum for takeoff or landing on that runway.
        (2)
        RVR(feet)Visiblity (s.m.)
        1,6001/4
        2,4001/2
        3,200.5/8
        4,0003/4
        4,5007/8
        5,0001
        6,0001 1/4
      (i) Operations on unpublished routes and use of radar in instrument approach procedures. When radar is approved at certain locations for ATC purposes, it may be used not only for surveillance and precision radar approaches, as applicable, but also may be used in conjunction with instrument approach procedures predicated on other types of radio navigational aids. Radar vectors may be authorized to provide course guidance through the segments of an approach to the final course or fix. When operating on an unpublished route or while being radar vectored, the pilot, when an approach clearance is received, shall, in addition to complying with §91.177, maintain the last altitude assigned to that pilot until the aircraft is established on a segment of a published route or instrument approach procedure unless a different altitude is assigned by ATC. After the aircraft is so established, published altitudes apply to descent within each succeeding route or approach segment unless a different altitude is assigned by ATC. Upon reaching the final approach course or fix, the pilot may either complete the instrument approach in accordance with a procedure approved for the facility or continue a surveillance or precision radar approach to a landing.
      (j) Limitation on procedure turns. In the case of a radar vector to a final approach course or fix, a timed approach from a holding fix, or an approach for which the procedure specifies “No PT,” no pilot may make a procedure turn unless cleared to do so by ATC.
      (k) ILS components. The basic ground components of an ILS are the localizer, glide slope, outer marker, middle marker, and, when installed for use with Category II or Category III instrument approach procedures, an inner marker. A compass locator or precision radar may be substituted for the outer or middle marker. DME, VOR, or nondirectional beacon fixes authorized in the standard instrument approach procedure or surveillance radar may be substituted for the outer marker. Applicability of, and substitution for, the inner marker for Category II or III approaches is determined by the appropriate part 97 approach procedure, letter of authorization, or operations specification pertinent to the operations.
    • 91.177 Minimum altitudes for IFR operations.
      (a) Operation of aircraft at minimum altitudes. Except when necessary for takeoff or landing, no person may operate an aircraft under IFR below—
        (1) The applicable minimum altitudes prescribed in parts 95 and 97 of this chapter; or
        (2) If no applicable minimum altitude is prescribed in those parts—
          (i) In the case of operations over an area designated as a mountainous area in part 95, an altitude of 2,000 feet above the highest obstacle within a horizontal distance of 4 nautical miles from the course to be flown; or
          (ii) In any other case, an altitude of 1,000 feet above the highest obstacle within a horizontal distance of 4 nautical miles from the course to be flown.
        However, if both a MEA and a MOCA are prescribed for a particular route or route segment, a person may operate an aircraft below the MEA down to, but not below, the MOCA, when within 22 nautical miles of the VOR concerned (based on the pilot's reasonable estimate of that distance).
      (b) Climb. Climb to a higher minimum IFR altitude shall begin immediately after passing the point beyond which that minimum altitude applies, except that when ground obstructions intervene, the point beyond which that higher minimum altitude applies shall be crossed at or above the applicable MCA.
    • 91.179 IFR cruising altitude or flight level.
      (a) In controlled airspace. Each person operating an aircraft under IFR in level cruising flight in controlled airspace shall maintain the altitude or flight level assigned that aircraft by ATC. However, if the ATC clearance assigns “VFR conditions on-top,” that person shall maintain an altitude or flight level as prescribed by §91.159.
      (b) In uncontrolled airspace. Except while in a holding pattern of 2 minutes or less or while turning, each person operating an aircraft under IFR in level cruising flight in uncontrolled airspace shall maintain an appropriate altitude as follows:
        (1) When operating below 18,000 feet MSL and—
          (i) On a magnetic course of zero degrees through 179 degrees, any odd thousand foot MSL altitude (such as 3,000, 5,000, or 7,000); or
          (ii) On a magnetic course of 180 degrees through 359 degrees, any even thousand foot MSL altitude (such as 2,000, 4,000, or 6,000).
        (2) When operating at or above 18,000 feet MSL but below flight level 290, and—
          (i) On a magnetic course of zero degrees through 179 degrees, any odd flight level (such as 190, 210, or 230); or
          (ii) On a magnetic course of 180 degrees through 359 degrees, any even flight level (such as 180, 200, or 220).
        (3) When operating at flight level 290 and above, and—
          (i) On a magnetic course of zero degrees through 179 degrees, any flight level, at 4,000-foot intervals, beginning at and including flight level 290 (such as flight level 290, 330, or 370); or
          (ii) On a magnetic course of 180 degrees through 359 degrees, any flight level, at 4,000-foot intervals, beginning at and including flight level 310 (such as flight level 310, 350, or 390).
    • 91.181 Course to be flown.
      Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, no person may operate an aircraft within controlled airspace under IFR except as follows:
        (a) On a Federal airway, along the centerline of that airway.
        (b) On any other route, along the direct course between the navigational aids or fixes defining that route. However, this section does not prohibit maneuvering the aircraft to pass well clear of other air traffic or the maneuvering of the aircraft in VFR conditions to clear the intended flight path both before and during climb or descent.
    • 91.183 IFR radio communications.
      The pilot in command of each aircraft operated under IFR in controlled airspace shall have a continuous watch maintained on the appropriate frequency and shall report by radio as soon as possible—
        (a) The time and altitude of passing each designated reporting point, or the reporting points specified by ATC, except that while the aircraft is under radar control, only the passing of those reporting points specifically requested by ATC need be reported;
        (b) Any unforecast weather conditions encountered; and
        (c) Any other information relating to the safety of flight.
    • 91.185 IFR operations: Two-way radio communications failure.
      (a) General. Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, each pilot who has two-way radio communications failure when operating under IFR shall comply with the rules of this section.
      (b) VFR conditions. If the failure occurs in VFR conditions, or if VFR conditions are encountered after the failure, each pilot shall continue the flight under VFR and land as soon as practicable.
      (c) IFR conditions. If the failure occurs in IFR conditions, or if paragraph (b) of this section cannot be complied with, each pilot shall continue the flight according to the following:
        (1) Route.
          (i) By the route assigned in the last ATC clearance received;
          (ii) If being radar vectored, by the direct route from the point of radio failure to the fix, route, or airway specified in the vector clearance;
          (iii) In the absence of an assigned route, by the route that ATC has advised may be expected in a further clearance; or
          (iv) In the absence of an assigned route or a route that ATC has advised may be expected in a further clearance, by the route filed in the flight plan.
        (2) Altitude. At the highest of the following altitudes or flight levels for the route segment being flown:
          (i) The altitude or flight level assigned in the last ATC clearance received;
          (ii) The minimum altitude (converted, if appropriate, to minimum flight level as prescribed in §91.121(c)) for IFR operations; or
          (iii) The altitude or flight level ATC has advised may be expected in a further clearance.
        (3) Leave clearance limit.
          (i) When the clearance limit is a fix from which an approach begins, commence descent or descent and approach as close as possible to the expect-further-clearance time if one has been received, or if one has not been received, as close as possible to the estimated time of arrival as calculated from the filed or amended (with ATC) estimated time en route.
          (ii) If the clearance limit is not a fix from which an approach begins, leave the clearance limit at the expect-further-clearance time if one has been received, or if none has been received, upon arrival over the clearance limit, and proceed to a fix from which an approach begins and commence descent or descent and approach as close as possible to the estimated time of arrival as calculated from the filed or amended (with ATC) estimated time en route.
      • 91.187 Operation under IFR in controlled airspace: Malfunction reports.
        (a) The pilot in command of each aircraft operated in controlled airspace under IFR shall report as soon as practical to ATC any malfunctions of navigational, approach, or communication equipment occurring in flight.
        (b) In each report required by paragraph (a) of this section, the pilot in command shall include the—
          (1) Aircraft identification;
          (2) Equipment affected;
          (3) Degree to which the capability of the pilot to operate under IFR in the ATC system is impaired; and
          (4) Nature and extent of assistance desired from ATC.
      • 91.205 Powered civil aircraft with standard category U.S. airworthiness certificates: Instrument and equipment requirements.
        (a) General. Except as provided in paragraphs (c)(3) and (e) of this section, no person may operate a powered civil aircraft with a standard category U.S. airworthiness certificate in any operation described in paragraphs (b) through (f) of this section unless that aircraft contains the instruments and equipment specified in those paragraphs (or FAA-approved equivalents) for that type of operation, and those instruments and items of equipment are in operable condition.
        (b) Visual-flight rules (day). For VFR flight during the day, the following instruments and equipment are required:
          (1) Airspeed indicator.
          (2) Altimeter.
          (3) Magnetic direction indicator.
          (4) Tachometer for each engine.
          (5) Oil pressure gauge for each engine using pressure system.
          (6) Temperature gauge for each liquid-cooled engine.
          (7) Oil temperature gauge for each air-cooled engine.
          (8) Manifold pressure gauge for each altitude engine.
          (9) Fuel gauge indicating the quantity of fuel in each tank.
          (10) Landing gear position indicator, if the aircraft has a retractable landing gear.
          (11) For small civil airplanes certificated after March 11, 1996, in accordance with part 23 of this chapter, an approved aviation red or aviation white anticollision light system. In the event of failure of any light of the anticollision light system, operation of the aircraft may continue to a location where repairs or replacement can be made.
          (12) If the aircraft is operated for hire over water and beyond power-off gliding distance from shore, approved flotation gear readily available to each occupant and at least one pyrotechnic signaling device. As used in this section, “shore” means that area of the land adjacent to the water which is above the high water mark and excludes land areas which are intermittently under water.
          (13) An approved safety belt with an approved metal-to-metal latching device for each occupant 2 years of age or older.
          (14) For small civil airplanes manufactured after July 18, 1978, an approved shoulder harness for each front seat. The shoulder harness must be designed to protect the occupant from serious head injury when the occupant experiences the ultimate inertia forces specified in §23.561(b)(2) of this chapter. Each shoulder harness installed at a flight crewmember station must permit the crewmember, when seated and with the safety belt and shoulder harness fastened, to perform all functions necessary for flight operations. For purposes of this paragraph—
            (i) The date of manufacture of an airplane is the date the inspection acceptance records reflect that the airplane is complete and meets the FAA-approved type design data; and
            (ii) A front seat is a seat located at a flight crewmember station or any seat located alongside such a seat.
          (15) An emergency locator transmitter, if required by §91.207.
          (16) For normal, utility, and acrobatic category airplanes with a seating configuration, excluding pilot seats, of 9 or less, manufactured after December 12, 1986, a shoulder harness for—
            (i) Each front seat that meets the requirements of §23.785 (g) and (h) of this chapter in effect on December 12, 1985;
            (ii) Each additional seat that meets the requirements of §23.785(g) of this chapter in effect on December 12, 1985.
          (17) For rotorcraft manufactured after September 16, 1992, a shoulder harness for each seat that meets the requirements of §27.2 or §29.2 of this chapter in effect on September 16, 1991.
        (c) Visual flight rules (night). For VFR flight at night, the following instruments and equipment are required:
          (1) Instruments and equipment specified in paragraph (b) of this section.
          (2) Approved position lights.
          (3) An approved aviation red or aviation white anticollision light system on all U.S.-registered civil aircraft. Anticollision light systems initially installed after August 11, 1971, on aircraft for which a type certificate was issued or applied for before August 11, 1971, must at least meet the anticollision light standards of part 23, 25, 27, or 29 of this chapter, as applicable, that were in effect on August 10, 1971, except that the color may be either aviation red or aviation white. In the event of failure of any light of the anticollision light system, operations with the aircraft may be continued to a stop where repairs or replacement can be made.
          (4) If the aircraft is operated for hire, one electric landing light.
          (5) An adequate source of electrical energy for all installed electrical and radio equipment.
          (6) One spare set of fuses, or three spare fuses of each kind required, that are accessible to the pilot in flight.
        (d) Instrument flight rules. For IFR flight, the following instruments and equipment are required:
          (1) Instruments and equipment specified in paragraph (b) of this section, and, for night flight, instruments and equipment specified in paragraph (c) of this section.
          (2) Two-way radio communications system and navigational equipment appropriate to the ground facilities to be used.
          (3) Gyroscopic rate-of-turn indicator, except on the following aircraft:
            (i) Airplanes with a third attitude instrument system usable through flight attitudes of 360 degrees of pitch and roll and installed in accordance with the instrument requirements prescribed in §121.305(j) of this chapter; and
            (ii) Rotorcraft with a third attitude instrument system usable through flight attitudes of ±80 degrees of pitch and ±120 degrees of roll and installed in accordance with §29.1303(g) of this chapter.
          (4) Slip-skid indicator.
          (5) Sensitive altimeter adjustable for barometric pressure.
          (6) A clock displaying hours, minutes, and seconds with a sweep-second pointer or digital presentation.
          (7) Generator or alternator of adequate capacity.
          (8) Gyroscopic pitch and bank indicator (artificial horizon).
          (9) Gyroscopic direction indicator (directional gyro or equivalent).
        (e) Flight at and above 24,000 ft. MSL (FL 240). If VOR navigational equipment is required under paragraph (d)(2) of this section, no person may operate a U.S.-registered civil aircraft within the 50 states and the District of Columbia at or above FL 240 unless that aircraft is equipped with approved distance measuring equipment (DME). When DME required by this paragraph fails at and above FL 240, the pilot in command of the aircraft shall notify ATC immediately, and then may continue operations at and above FL 240 to the next airport of intended landing at which repairs or replacement of the equipment can be made.
Greg Gordon MD, CFII
Updated: