Normal and Crosswind Approach and Landing

Teaching and Learning Flying - Private Pilot, Single-Engine Airplane

Normal and Crosswind Approach and Landing

DEFINITION

Approach and landing involves aircraft control during smooth transition from deceleration and descent from a traffic pattern position through roundout and touchdown to deceleration during rollout on the ground

SAFETY FACTORS

How to determine landing performance and limitations
- Part of preflight preparation
- Know lengths and conditions of runways at destination and alternates
- Refer to POH, Section 5, Landing Distance table (TR182) or
- Landing Ground Roll and Landing Distance Over 50-Foot Barrier Figures (PA-38-112)
  - Minimum distances for airplane in good condition, flown by proficient pilot
  - Depends on technique, weight, density altitude, wind, runway
  - Safety recommendation: add 50-100% to total distance over 50-foot obstacle = minimum safe runway length
Obstructions and other hazards which should be considered
- Divide attention; watch for traffic (including landing opposite direction!)
- Scan approach area for obstacles

TOLERANCES

Private Pilot PTS, XI A
- Explain elements, including airspeeds, configurations, crosswind limitations, and related safety factors
- Maintain proper ground track on final approach
- Establish approach and landing configuration and power required
- Maintain recommended approach airspeed, +/- 5 knots
- Make smooth, timely, and correct control application during the final approach and transition from approach to landing rollout
- Touch down smoothly at approximate stalling speed, at or within 500 feet beyond a specified point, with no appreciable drift, and the airplane longitudinal axis aligned with the runway centerline
- Maintain directional control, increasing aileron deflection into the wind, as necessary, during after-landing roll
Commercial Pilot PTS, IX A, adds:
- Maintain stabilized descent angle and recommended approach airspeed with gust correction applied, +/- 5 knots
- Note any obstructions or other hazards in approach path and landing area, and consider landing performance capability
- Verify wind condition and make positive correction for crosswind
- Recognize and promptly correct deviations during approach and landing
- Touch down smoothly at approximate stalling speed, beyond and within 200 feet of a specified point, with no drift and the airplane's longitudinal axis aligned with the runway centerline
- Maintain positive directional control and crosswind correction during after-landing roll
- Complete the after-landing checklist in a timely manner

OBJECTIVES

To develop the student's knowledge and skill in planning and performing safe approaches and landings in normal and crosswind conditions to meet the appropriate practical test standards
To provide thorough knowledge of approach and landing principles that will help prevent an attempt to land under conditions requiring performance beyond the capability of airplane or pilot

PROCEDURES

Discuss elements of normal and crosswind approach and landing
How to determine landing performance and limitations
Obstructions and other hazards which should be considered
Demonstrate approach and landing
Configuration, power and trim
- Normal (engine power available, light wind or direct headwind on final, no obstacles)
  - Tomahawk: Approach and Landing Checklist
    - Fuel selector - Proper (fullest) tank
    - Seat backs - Erect
    - Belts/harness - Fasten
    - Electric fuel pump - ON
    - Mixture - set RICH
    - Flaps - set 89 KIAS max
    - Final approach speed, full flaps, 2 flow strips - 67 KIAS
  - TR182 Pre-landing GUMP check
    - Seats, belts, harness - SECURE
    - Gear down (<140 KIAS) on downwind or sooner
    - Check gear down (visual) and locked light ON
    - Mix - RICH
    - Prop - HIGH RPM
    - Carb heat - ON
    - Autopilot - OFF
  - TR182: flaps as desired (10° < 140 KIAS, 20° < 120, full<95)
  - Recommend: full flaps on final, landing assured, to minimize touchdown speed
  - No-flap landings should also be practiced
  - Adjust power and pitch in a coordinated manner to maintain desired descent attitude and airspeed
  - Trim to relieve control pressures
- Crosswind
  - Demonstrated crosswind components
    - Tomahawk: 15 knots
    - TR182: 18 knots
  - Minimum flap setting required for field length
A stabilized approach at the recommended airspeed to the selected touchdown area
- Stabilized final approach is the key to accurate, positively-controlled landings
- Objective of good final approach is to descend at an angle and airspeed that will result in minimum floating just before touchdown
- Slight, simultaneous, coordinated adjustments of pitch and power may be needed to maintain desired attitude and airspeed
- Tomahawk final:
  - 70 KIAS then
  - 67 KIAS with full flaps
- TR182 final:
  - 75+5 KIAS flaps up
  - 70+5 KIAS flaps down
Coordination of flight controls
- Keep ball centered (except sideslip in crosswind)
- Avoid base-to-final skid.
- Go around if medium-banked, coordinated turn significantly overshoots extended runway centerline.
A precise ground track
- Landing is the "ultimate ground reference maneuver" (flight path must coincide with runway)
- Fly good rectangular pattern
- On final, precise ground track is essential to assure safe landing on runway
Wind shear and wake turbulence
- Wind shear precautions
  - Avoid if possible (proximity of T-storms)
  - Increase airspeed by approximately ½ the gust factor
  - Minimum flaps for field length
  - Stay relatively high until necessary to descend
  - Be prepared to go around, especially if decrease in airspeed
- Wake turbulence avoidance
  - Observe rotation or touchdown point of large aircraft
  - Avoid danger area "triangle" between ground and flight path of larger aircraft
  - Beware vortex drift laterally downwind out of this triangle
Most suitable crosswind technique
- Minimum flaps for field length
- Although crab or combination method may be used, wing-low method gives best control
- Wing-low or side slip method
  - On final, align heading with centerline
  - Lower upwind wing to prevent drift
  - Apply opposite rudder to prevent turn and keep longitudinal axis aligned with centerline
  - If full opposite rudder will not prevent turn, crosswind component is too strong to land safely (change runway or airport)
  - Maintain crosswind correction during roundout and touchdown on upwind wheel
- After touchdown, hold straight course with steerable nosewheel and increase aileron into wind as groundspeed slows
Timing, judgment, and control techniques during roundout and touchdown
- Short final: recheck: GUMP
- Pilot's head should assume straight-ahead, natural position with visual focus over nose to touchdown zone while maintaining awareness of distance from sides of runway with peripheral vision
- Focus too close: references blurred, pilot tends to overcontrol, roundout high, and "drop in"
- Focus too far: closeness to ground cannot be accurately judged, reactions may be too slow, airplane may fly into ground, nose first
- Visual focus should be changed gradually, moving progressively closer as speed is reduced
- Roundout (flare)
  - Slow, smooth, continuous transition from approach to landing attitude
  - Start 10-20 feet AGL
  - Gradually apply back elevator pressure, allowing airplane to settle forward as speed decreases
  - Power normally reduced to idle during roundout
  - In turbulent conditions, leave some power on to maintain airspeed and retard to idle only after main wheels touchdown
  - Rate of roundout depends on airplane's height above ground, rate of descent and pitch attitude
  - Keep one hand ON THROTTLE
- Touchdown
  - Gentle settling of the main gear onto runway at approximately stalling speed with engine idling and airplane in landing attitude
  - Way to make an ideal landing is to try to hold the airplane's wheels a few inches off the ground as long as possible with the elevator
  - Nosewheel airplanes: mains first, holding nose off, then gradually relax elevator, allowing nosewheel to settle on and permit nosewheel steering
  - Tailwheels: 3-point landing on all wheels simultaneously and ease elevator control back to hold tail down
  - Touchdown with longitudinal axis parallel to direction of movement along runway
Crosswind roundout and touchdown
- As airspeed slows, gradually increase deflection of rudder and ailerons to maintain proper drift correction
- Touchdown on upwind wheel
- Allow downwind main to settle on
- As nosewheel settles on, promptly relax corrective rudder pressure to steer with nosewheel
Directional control after touchdown
- Directional control with rudder and nosewheel steering
- Increase aileron deflection into wind to hold upwind wing down
Use of brakes
- Save brakes by using aerodynamic braking if runway length permits
- Even, equal pressure on brakes
Use of checklist
Coach student practice
Critique student performance

COMMON ERRORS

Improper use of landing performance data and limitations
Failure to establish approach and landing configuration at appropriate time or in proper sequence
- Use checklist
- Gear down on or before pattern entry
Failure to establish and maintain a stabilized approach
Inappropriate removal of hand from throttle
Improper technique during roundout and touchdown
- High roundout
  - If adequate airspeed, stop roundout, hold pitch until airplane begins to settle again, then resume roundout
  - May need to add power to prevent airspeed from decreasing too much and to avoid losing lift too rapidly
  - Do not lower nose without adding power (loss of lift may result in nosewheel contacting ground)
  - If appears that nose should be lowered significantly: GO AROUND
- Late or rapid roundout
  - May cause accelerated stall, hard landing, bounce back into air
  - Recovery requires prompt application of power before stall
  - Then, normal landing or, if insufficient runway, GO AROUND
- Floating during roundout
  - Due to excessive airspeed on final
  - Judgment of speed, height and sink rate must be keen
  - Smoothly and gradually adjust pitch as airplane decelerates to touchdown speed and starts to settle
  - Slight error in judgment or timing will result in either ballooning or bouncing
  - If landing cannot be made on first third of runway or airplane drifts sideways, GO AROUND
- Ballooning during roundout
  - Due to increasing pitch attitude too rapidly
  - If slight, hold constant landing attitude as airplane decelerates and settles (applying power may help keep airspeed and lift from decreasing too rapidly)
  - Excessive ballooning: GO AROUND
  - Drifting while ballooning in a crosswind: GO AROUND
- Bouncing during touchdown
  - Due to abrupt increase in angle of attack as inertia carries tail downward after main wheels contact the ground too sharply due to excessive sink rate or improper attitude
  - Usually exacerbated by sudden back elevator pressure as pilot realizes too late that the airplane has not attained proper attitude
  - Corrective action is the same as for ballooning and depends on bounce severity
  - Beware, especially, bouncing in a crosswind when drift correction will invariably be released by inexperienced pilot (GO AROUND)
  - Continue go-around from severe bounce even if another bounce occurs
- Hard landing
  - Load imposed at instant of touchdown may be 3 or 4 times the natural weight of the airplane
  - May be followed by bounce
- Touchdown in a drift or crab
  - Contacting the ground while moving sideways may impose severe, damaging side loads on landing gear
  - Due to failure to keep longitudinal axis of airplane aligned with runway and direction of motion during approach and touchdown
  - Most effective preventive measure is the "wing-low method"
- Poor directional control after touchdown
  - Ground loop
    - Uncontrolled turn during ground operations, especially landing roll
    - Due to drift, weathervaning, misuse of rudder, soft ground spot
    - More likely in tailwheel airplane (CG behind main gear)
  - If touchdown in drift or crab
    - Aileron into wind
    - Stop swerve with rudder
    - Use brakes only when rudder inadequate
- Wing rising after touchdown
  - Due to greater wind force on upwind wing and wind striking fuselage
  - Aileron promptly into wind
  - Use throttle if necessary to increase aileron effectiveness
Improper use of brakes

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