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Teaching and Learning Flying - Private Pilot, Single-Engine Airplane

Normal and Crosswind Approach and Landing


DEFINITION

    Approach and landing involves aircraft control during smooth transition from deceleration and descent from a traffic pattern position through roundout and touchdown to deceleration during rollout on the ground

SAFETY FACTORS

  • How to determine landing performance and limitations
    • Part of preflight preparation
    • Know lengths and conditions of runways at destination and alternates
    • Refer to POH, Section 5, Landing Distance table (TR182) or
    • Landing Ground Roll and Landing Distance Over 50-Foot Barrier Figures (PA-38-112)
      • Minimum distances for airplane in good condition, flown by proficient pilot
      • Depends on technique, weight, density altitude, wind, runway
      • Safety recommendation: add 50-100% to total distance over 50-foot obstacle = minimum safe runway length
  • Obstructions and other hazards which should be considered
    • Divide attention; watch for traffic (including landing opposite direction!)
    • Scan approach area for obstacles

TOLERANCES

  • Private Pilot PTS, XI A
    • Explain elements, including airspeeds, configurations, crosswind limitations, and related safety factors
    • Maintain proper ground track on final approach
    • Establish approach and landing configuration and power required
    • Maintain recommended approach airspeed, +/- 5 knots
    • Make smooth, timely, and correct control application during the final approach and transition from approach to landing rollout
    • Touch down smoothly at approximate stalling speed, at or within 500 feet beyond a specified point, with no appreciable drift, and the airplane longitudinal axis aligned with the runway centerline
    • Maintain directional control, increasing aileron deflection into the wind, as necessary, during after-landing roll
  • Commercial Pilot PTS, IX A, adds:
    • Maintain stabilized descent angle and recommended approach airspeed with gust correction applied, +/- 5 knots
    • Note any obstructions or other hazards in approach path and landing area, and consider landing performance capability
    • Verify wind condition and make positive correction for crosswind
    • Recognize and promptly correct deviations during approach and landing
    • Touch down smoothly at approximate stalling speed, beyond and within 200 feet of a specified point, with no drift and the airplane's longitudinal axis aligned with the runway centerline
    • Maintain positive directional control and crosswind correction during after-landing roll
    • Complete the after-landing checklist in a timely manner

OBJECTIVES

  • To develop the student's knowledge and skill in planning and performing safe approaches and landings in normal and crosswind conditions to meet the appropriate practical test standards
  • To provide thorough knowledge of approach and landing principles that will help prevent an attempt to land under conditions requiring performance beyond the capability of airplane or pilot

PROCEDURES

  • Discuss elements of normal and crosswind approach and landing
  • How to determine landing performance and limitations
  • Obstructions and other hazards which should be considered
  • Demonstrate approach and landing
  • Configuration, power and trim
    • Normal (engine power available, light wind or direct headwind on final, no obstacles)
      • Tomahawk: Approach and Landing Checklist
        • Fuel selector - Proper (fullest) tank
        • Seat backs - Erect
        • Belts/harness - Fasten
        • Electric fuel pump - ON
        • Mixture - set RICH
        • Flaps - set 89 KIAS max
        • Final approach speed, full flaps, 2 flow strips - 67 KIAS
      • TR182 Pre-landing GUMP check
        • Seats, belts, harness - SECURE
        • Gear down (<140 KIAS) on downwind or sooner
        • Check gear down (visual) and locked light ON
        • Mix - RICH
        • Prop - HIGH RPM
        • Carb heat - ON
        • Autopilot - OFF
      • TR182: flaps as desired (10° < 140 KIAS, 20° < 120, full<95)
      • Recommend: full flaps on final, landing assured, to minimize touchdown speed
      • No-flap landings should also be practiced
      • Adjust power and pitch in a coordinated manner to maintain desired descent attitude and airspeed
      • Trim to relieve control pressures
    • Crosswind
      • Demonstrated crosswind components
        • Tomahawk: 15 knots
        • TR182: 18 knots
      • Minimum flap setting required for field length
    A stabilized approach at the recommended airspeed to the selected touchdown area
    • Stabilized final approach is the key to accurate, positively-controlled landings
    • Objective of good final approach is to descend at an angle and airspeed that will result in minimum floating just before touchdown
    • Slight, simultaneous, coordinated adjustments of pitch and power may be needed to maintain desired attitude and airspeed
    • Tomahawk final:
      • 70 KIAS then
      • 67 KIAS with full flaps
    • TR182 final:
      • 75+5 KIAS flaps up
      • 70+5 KIAS flaps down
  • Coordination of flight controls
    • Keep ball centered (except sideslip in crosswind)
    • Avoid base-to-final skid.
    • Go around if medium-banked, coordinated turn significantly overshoots extended runway centerline.
  • A precise ground track
    • Landing is the "ultimate ground reference maneuver" (flight path must coincide with runway)
    • Fly good rectangular pattern
    • On final, precise ground track is essential to assure safe landing on runway
  • Wind shear and wake turbulence
    • Wind shear precautions
      • Avoid if possible (proximity of T-storms)
      • Increase airspeed by approximately ½ the gust factor
      • Minimum flaps for field length
      • Stay relatively high until necessary to descend
      • Be prepared to go around, especially if decrease in airspeed
    • Wake turbulence avoidance
      • Observe rotation or touchdown point of large aircraft
      • Avoid danger area "triangle" between ground and flight path of larger aircraft
      • Beware vortex drift laterally downwind out of this triangle
  • Most suitable crosswind technique
    • Minimum flaps for field length
    • Although crab or combination method may be used, wing-low method gives best control
    • Wing-low or side slip method
      • On final, align heading with centerline
      • Lower upwind wing to prevent drift
      • Apply opposite rudder to prevent turn and keep longitudinal axis aligned with centerline
      • If full opposite rudder will not prevent turn, crosswind component is too strong to land safely (change runway or airport)
      • Maintain crosswind correction during roundout and touchdown on upwind wheel
    • After touchdown, hold straight course with steerable nosewheel and increase aileron into wind as groundspeed slows
  • Timing, judgment, and control techniques during roundout and touchdown
    • Short final: recheck: GUMP
    • Pilot's head should assume straight-ahead, natural position with visual focus over nose to touchdown zone while maintaining awareness of distance from sides of runway with peripheral vision
    • Focus too close: references blurred, pilot tends to overcontrol, roundout high, and "drop in"
    • Focus too far: closeness to ground cannot be accurately judged, reactions may be too slow, airplane may fly into ground, nose first
    • Visual focus should be changed gradually, moving progressively closer as speed is reduced
    • Roundout (flare)
      • Slow, smooth, continuous transition from approach to landing attitude
      • Start 10-20 feet AGL
      • Gradually apply back elevator pressure, allowing airplane to settle forward as speed decreases
      • Power normally reduced to idle during roundout
      • In turbulent conditions, leave some power on to maintain airspeed and retard to idle only after main wheels touchdown
      • Rate of roundout depends on airplane's height above ground, rate of descent and pitch attitude
      • Keep one hand ON THROTTLE
    • Touchdown
      • Gentle settling of the main gear onto runway at approximately stalling speed with engine idling and airplane in landing attitude
      • Way to make an ideal landing is to try to hold the airplane's wheels a few inches off the ground as long as possible with the elevator
      • Nosewheel airplanes: mains first, holding nose off, then gradually relax elevator, allowing nosewheel to settle on and permit nosewheel steering
      • Tailwheels: 3-point landing on all wheels simultaneously and ease elevator control back to hold tail down
      • Touchdown with longitudinal axis parallel to direction of movement along runway
  • Crosswind roundout and touchdown
    • As airspeed slows, gradually increase deflection of rudder and ailerons to maintain proper drift correction
    • Touchdown on upwind wheel
    • Allow downwind main to settle on
    • As nosewheel settles on, promptly relax corrective rudder pressure to steer with nosewheel
  • Directional control after touchdown
    • Directional control with rudder and nosewheel steering
    • Increase aileron deflection into wind to hold upwind wing down
  • Use of brakes
    • Save brakes by using aerodynamic braking if runway length permits
    • Even, equal pressure on brakes
  • Use of checklist
      Repeat GUMP check on final
  • Coach student practice
  • Critique student performance

COMMON ERRORS

  • Improper use of landing performance data and limitations
  • Failure to establish approach and landing configuration at appropriate time or in proper sequence
    • Use checklist
    • Gear down on or before pattern entry
  • Failure to establish and maintain a stabilized approach
  • Inappropriate removal of hand from throttle
  • Improper technique during roundout and touchdown
    • High roundout
      • If adequate airspeed, stop roundout, hold pitch until airplane begins to settle again, then resume roundout
      • May need to add power to prevent airspeed from decreasing too much and to avoid losing lift too rapidly
      • Do not lower nose without adding power (loss of lift may result in nosewheel contacting ground)
      • If appears that nose should be lowered significantly: GO AROUND
    • Late or rapid roundout
      • May cause accelerated stall, hard landing, bounce back into air
      • Recovery requires prompt application of power before stall
      • Then, normal landing or, if insufficient runway, GO AROUND
    • Floating during roundout
      • Due to excessive airspeed on final
      • Judgment of speed, height and sink rate must be keen
      • Smoothly and gradually adjust pitch as airplane decelerates to touchdown speed and starts to settle
      • Slight error in judgment or timing will result in either ballooning or bouncing
      • If landing cannot be made on first third of runway or airplane drifts sideways, GO AROUND
    • Ballooning during roundout
      • Due to increasing pitch attitude too rapidly
      • If slight, hold constant landing attitude as airplane decelerates and settles (applying power may help keep airspeed and lift from decreasing too rapidly)
      • Excessive ballooning: GO AROUND
      • Drifting while ballooning in a crosswind: GO AROUND
    • Bouncing during touchdown
      • Due to abrupt increase in angle of attack as inertia carries tail downward after main wheels contact the ground too sharply due to excessive sink rate or improper attitude
      • Usually exacerbated by sudden back elevator pressure as pilot realizes too late that the airplane has not attained proper attitude
      • Corrective action is the same as for ballooning and depends on bounce severity
      • Beware, especially, bouncing in a crosswind when drift correction will invariably be released by inexperienced pilot (GO AROUND)
      • Continue go-around from severe bounce even if another bounce occurs
    • Hard landing
      • Load imposed at instant of touchdown may be 3 or 4 times the natural weight of the airplane
      • May be followed by bounce
    • Touchdown in a drift or crab
      • Contacting the ground while moving sideways may impose severe, damaging side loads on landing gear
      • Due to failure to keep longitudinal axis of airplane aligned with runway and direction of motion during approach and touchdown
      • Most effective preventive measure is the "wing-low method"
    • Poor directional control after touchdown
      • Ground loop
        • Uncontrolled turn during ground operations, especially landing roll
        • Due to drift, weathervaning, misuse of rudder, soft ground spot
        • More likely in tailwheel airplane (CG behind main gear)
      • If touchdown in drift or crab
        • Aileron into wind
        • Stop swerve with rudder
        • Use brakes only when rudder inadequate
    • Wing rising after touchdown
      • Due to greater wind force on upwind wing and wind striking fuselage
      • Aileron promptly into wind
      • Use throttle if necessary to increase aileron effectiveness
  • Improper use of brakes
      Minimum necessary


Greg Gordon MD, CFII
Updated: